The Diversity And Complexity Of The Construction Industry - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 17 Words: 4958 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? 1.1 Introduction: This chapter illustrates how unique, huge, diverse and enormously complex is the construction industry. This industry generally constitutes of enterprises and professionals whose primary objective is to build communities, roads, schools, homes, business, hospitals and including its maintenance. The construction process consists of many activities, right from the onset of the project design and right through its implementation, maintenance, refurbishment, and goes up to the eventual disposal of its buildings or in other words, the whole life cycle of the project. This industry therefore require a wide range of suppliers, contractors and including manufacturers of materials and components to carry out its activities. The industry had changed a lot in its complexity over time, but the objective of the industry remains basically the same as it was 100 years ago. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Diversity And Complexity Of The Construction Industry" essay for you Create order However, the construction industry has a unique structure; with very few large establishments that dominate the infrastructure by carrying out works, that produces the majority of the turnover of this industry on a whole. Sears et al. 2008, p.2 state that contractors who vary widely in size and speciality accomplish the construction works. Some contractors choose to concentrate on a particular task or aspect of the construction project and are therefore referred to as specialty contractors. Others assume broader responsibility for a comprehensive work package and are referred to as main contractor. Due to the diversity present in the industry, the industry is fragmented which is a reality, the reason might be due to the adversarial short-term relationships which causes dissatisfaction within the industry and is therefore a project focused relationship. Moreover, lack of effective communication and implementation may also contribute to the fragmentation of the industry as it leads to significant negative impacts, low productivity, cost and time overruns and finally end up in conflicts and disputes. The industry also now faces new levels of complexity as it moves forward trying to keep pace with the increasing energy, material and labour costs which are to a great extend mitigated by the other industries by adopting the new technologies especially communication and information technology and also advanced management strategies. 1.2 Overview: The industry is considered to be one of the major economic sectors, which contributes a lot to the gross domestic product of the nation in respect to other industries. Cooke, and Williams, 2009, on p.3 states that the annual output of the UK construction industry is approximately  £114 billion, which represents almost 9% of gross domestic product. This industry also underpins the remaining sectors of the economy by providing the essential infrastructure and facilities on which all sectors of the economy depend. According to Potts, 2008, on p.3, this construction sector with 11.8 million operatives directly employed makes it Europeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s largest industrial employer accounting for 7% of total employment and 28% of industrial employment in the EU. There was also a report of the government policies, which was published by BIS (Department for Business Innovation and Skills business group sector document), stating that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“the UK construction industry consists of over 250,000 firms employing 2.1 million people in a multitude of roles. The sector is defined as one which embraces the construction materials and products; suppliers and producers; building services manufacturers, providers and installers; contractors, sub-contractors, professionals, advisors and construction clients and those organisations that are relevant to the design, build, operation and refurbishment of buildingsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. However, construction industry is very different from other manufacturing industries and therefore difficult to achieve similar performance, mainly due to its degree of uniqueness in its use, in the size, its location and complexity due to the varied non-uniform working conditions from one project to another. Therefore, it appears to be underperforming when compared to many other industries. Jones, Saad, 2003, on p.12 state that, the diversity of the construction and the variability in the production process has to be reorganised with each new construction project. For each project, a series of decisions has to be taken which take into account the clientà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s specific requirements and the context in which the tasks are to be executed. This can make project outcomes difficult to predict and can result in short and often adversarial relationships. Cox, Townsend, 1998, on p.21 states that the productivity, value for money, and overall client satisfaction in the construction industry are fairly low compared to other industrial sectors. The factors being: low and discontinuous demand; frequent changes in specification; inappropriate (contractor and client) selection criteria; inappropriate allocation of risk; poor quality; inefficient methods of construction; poor management; inadequate investment; an adversarial culture; and a fragmented industry structure. In order to improve the performance of this industry, government had taken initiatives and had produced many reports but had not made any impact. 1.3 Reports and recommendations: The publication of major notable reports namely Lathamà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Report à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Constructing the Team (1994)à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? and two Egan Reports à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Rethinking Construction (1998)à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Accelerating Change (2002)à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? produced a considerable impact in UKà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s construction industry and started changing its working culture. Constructing the Team by Sir Michael Latham was published in July 1994, the key issues as summarised by Holroyd, 2003, on p.39 are as follows: Clients have a role in promoting good design which provides value for money Clients should select the most appropriate procurement route on the basis of the type of project Effective design is crucial A modern contract should include: A specific duty for all parties to deal with each other Firm duties of teamwork so all can share in success A clear definition of the roles and responsibilities of all parties Easily understood language with guidance notes A choice of risk allocation Avoid variations à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" if it is required, price it in advance Ensure fair, prompt and secure payment to all parties Avoid conflict on site and disputes if any to be resolved speedily When selecting suppliers or tenderers, consideration should be given to: Quality as well as price A lead manager Sensible tender lists No burdensome qualification procedures Value for money Cost in use Factors which determine performance include: Adequacy of safety consideration Ability of operatives Improved training Relevant professional education Adequate RD, which is properly funded Teamwork on site depends on fair treatment for all parties The liability for defects post-completion should be properly addressed Rethinking Construction by Sir John Egan delivered the report in July 1998 for the success of the construction industry. He opined that while UK construction at its best is excellent, substantial improvements can be made, and it is vital that they are made. The key issues of this report as summarised by Holroyd, 2003, on p.40 are as follows: The UK construction industry needs to improve à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" there should be: Less fragmentation Increased profitability More capital investment More investment in RD More and better training Differentiation between price and cost Set targets for improvement and give commitment to the needs of the customer, to quality, and to people à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" the team and the process should be integrated around the product, and management should be committed to improvement throughout the organisation The construction process should be improved by: More process repetition on projects Integrating all team members to use their skills to deliver value to the client Focus on the end product à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" how best to achieve the desired result Continuous product improvement Implement projects correctly, suiting the site and the customer Partnering through the supply chain Once improvement starts, maintain it Improvement could be accomplished by developing a better culture in the industry: Providing decent working conditions More and better training Produce designs which considers the projects end use Standardise components where possible Improve regulatory controls Implement long à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" term relationships The National audit office report (2001)à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? Modernising Constructionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? as stated by Cooke, Williams, 2009, on p.11 that a major contributory factor to the poor performance of this industry was the adversarial relationships that existed between the construction firms, consultants and clients and between contractors, subcontractors and suppliers. The report also identified that government departments and agencies to ensure collaboration, integration and value for monies in the procurement of construction services. Further, it also suggested that the entire supply chain be integrated and that risk and value must be managed in order to reduce accidents, drive out waste and improve buildability. McGeorge and Palmer 2002 on p.54 cite CIRIAà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s definition of buildability as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"the extent to which the design of the building facilitates ease of construction, subject to the overall requirements for the completed buildingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. These reports produced during the various periods had contributed a lot to the growth of the construction industry. Since these reports were published, a changed performance could be clearly noticed in the activities of this industry. The findings of the report had tried to build up a challenge in the construction industry to procure projects that could achieve best value and also help in understanding the balance between quality and whole-life cost of the project. Many more studies on the performance of the construction industry were also conducted subsequently, which had identified the areas of strength and weakness of the construction industry. According to Jones, Saad, 2003, on p.2, the strength of the industry includes its flexibility and adaptability and its persistent weakness include its fragmented structure and project processes and its adversarial relationships. Furthermore, deficiencies in its performance in relation to customer focus, learning and leadership were revealed when benchmarked against other industries. 1.4 Material use: The construction industry is considered one of the major consumers of natural resources mainly the virgin materials from its surrounding environment. This will give rise to many environmental issues, which are unsustainable such as depleting natural resources, diminishing the earthà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s biodiversity, and even cause extinction of habitat if we continue the present rate of consumption. As stated by Kelley et al. on p.298 that materials used in buildings account for some 40% of natural resource use, 30% of CO2 emissions and 40% of waste. However, the environmental issues would certainly create a vital impact on the society and hence this industry should take earnest attempt to develop a strategy to provide low carbon solutions by way of minimising its carbon footprint. In addition, the projectà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) that voluntarily decides to contribute to a better society and a cleaner environment and along with its procurement policy, c ould contribute to the environmental success. Built environment: The paper presented by Natural Building Technologies, have quoted à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“One Planet Living materialà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? of BioRegional and the World Wide Fund for Nature; have shown that if everyone in the world-consumed resources at the same rate that of UK, it would take the equivalent of three planets now to sustain this consumption. Hence, UK and the other western nations urgently need to take radical measures in order to reduce this present rate of consumption of resources. As we are aware that this planet has only a finite quantity of resources and therefore we in the construction industry should have a moral responsibility to ensure that industry is resourced using sustainable techniques. More over the construction industry should also insist on an environmental management system (EMS) accreditation for every project, which could help in continually, improving its environmental performance. An internal EMS audit if periodically conducted would help in checking the effectivene ss and delivery capability of the management system. The strategy paper of the UK Government, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Building a Better Quality of Life: A Strategy for more Sustainable Constructionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? by the Department of Environment, Transport and the Regions (2000 b) as summarised by Kelly et al. 2002 on p.296 recognises the importance of sustainable construction and had challenged the construction industry to provide built assets which: Cause minimum damage to natural and social environments Minimise the use of resources Enhance the quality of life Will be acceptable to future generations 1.6 Needs: The working pattern of the society is changing quite fast and construction industry is known for adapting to change at a faster pace than other industries. Nowadays many people tend to work from home since jobs functions can be remotely performed and is quite feasible. The benefit from working at home helps in the reduction of transport movements, thereby considerably reducing pollution and traffic congestion especially during the peak hours. It is an eco-friendly option and is to be encouraged. Hence, this working culture would require housing to provide a higher quality of life and greater flexibility of adaptable living and space requirements. Therefore, in majority of existing homes, a need for up gradation would be necessary and a lot more of new homes constructed to accommodate this new culture in the coming years; for which a huge quantity of materials are required by the industry. This results in a heavy material flow. In addition, while designing a sustainable project, selec tion of materials should be made based on locally and easily available material, in order to reduce the embedded energy cost of transportation. This option would also decrease the carbon footprint of the project. 1.7 Regulations: A government publication by energy saving trust on the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Code for Sustainable Homes New build housingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (Relevant to: England and Wales), states that the government intends that all new build homes should be zero carbon by the year 2016. Code level 3 is proposed to become the new standards for Building Regulations in England in 2010 and by 2050; the nationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s entire housing stock will be virtually zero carbon. Clients, who desire to increase value of their project, could insist on the use of sustainable materials in order to acquire higher sustainability rating as mentioned in the BREEAMà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s code for sustainable homes. These regulations create a lot of pressure on the project management team if a proper supply chain management technique is not available.. As mentioned in the Code for Sustainable Homes (Annex B Category 3, Materials on p.37), the supply chain management and material stewardship are essential elements of responsible sourcing. Hence, the supply chain manager is to consider the consequence and impacts of using materials by analysing its life cycle (right from the point it was mined or harvested,through manufacture and processing of the material, including its use, reuse and disposed off as waste with no further value), before the material is actually used in the project. However, all timber used in the project should be 100% legally sourced and 80% for all other assessed materials. 1.8 Sustainable sourcing code: For the London 2012 games, London Organising Committee of the Olympic Games (LOCOG) had prepared a Sustainable Sourcing Code in consultation with industry leaders, sponsors and non-governmental organisations. It had been reviewing how its sponsorship and procurement activity could achieve the highest possible standards to ensure that the goods and services it procures comply with this code in meeting the sustainability objectives for the 2012 games. This code could be used as a benchmark in the preparation of a similar code of practice by the construction industry. The four core principles of the LOGOà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Sustainable Sourcing Code and supporting guidelines on packaging and carbon emissions of products and services originally published in November 2007 and updated in December 2009 are as shown below: Responsible sourcing: Labour practices Health and Safety Diversity and inclusion Animal welfare and Testing Animal and plant products Timber and timber products Use of secondary products materials: Reducing waste Recycled content Packaging Waste electrical and electronic equipment Minimising embodied impacts: Environmental management Supply of products Transport à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Low carbonà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ Games Healthy materials: Restricted substances and materials Heavy metals and brominated fire retardants 1.9 Controlling material resources: A material at site is money and is to be prudently handled. The cost of materials constitutes a major portion of the project cost. March 2009, p.139 states that the value of the materials incorporated into a building represent anything from 40 to 60 per cent of the final cost. Therefore, control of materials at site is a crucial element. Materials are not be wasted or lost. For proper control an effective communication between all involved for the project success namely the planning department, purchasing department, the site and the supplier is important. Responsibilities are to be clearly defined especially in buying of materials within the estimated amount since efficient buying results in savings, which in turn contributes to the profitability of the contract. Similarly hoarding of materials at site should be discouraged by initiating just in time delivery, but care is to be taken in the selection of material supplier so that the availability of bulk materials is ensured. Therefo re, materials management in construction projects is essential for its success. As Cooke and Williams 2009 on p.401 states that an essential component of materials management begins with site layout and planning. Designated areas must be allowed for material storage in order to reduce waste and damage to materials. Excessive stock of materials is a problem need to be controlled. March 2009, p.139 enumerates the reasons as to why excessive stock is to be controlled; Excessive stocks take up capital which could be better used Takes up space and absorb further capital for protection against weather Likely to be damaged resulting in unnecessary expenditure and possible delay incurred in replacement May be necessary to double handle stock to elsewhere on the site and missing the opportunity to have just in time delivery Site efficiency can be increased by effective material handling and result in costly waste reduced. Every project worth more than  £250 000 effective from April 2008 should have a Site waste management plan (SWMP), without which it would be a serious criminal offence as mentioned by Cooke and Williams 2009 on p.403 quoting The Clean Neighbourhood and Environment Act 2005 (Section 54 of Part 5). 1.10 Whole-life thinking: In addition, the construction industry need to consider the aspect of whole life costing during the procurement as the project not only consumes sustainable resources, but also generates waste in construction and demolition activities. The procurement of materials for the industry is strongly affected by environmental issues. Greater use of modern methods of construction and off-site prefabrication could be a solution in reducing the total amount of waste generated at site. Hence, the construction industry should strive to develop and implement the new paradigm of the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"triple bottom lineà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ namely environmental, social and economic sustainability. Green building is an innovative technology and is good to be adopted by construction industry. This approach creates a positive environmental, social and economical impact over the entire life cycle of the project. It is a holistic approach of design and considers its impact on the wider environment and community around it. This technology procures homes, which are durable, save energy, reduce waste and pollution, and promote health and well-being. 1.11 Procurement methods: One of the main problems in this industry says Cooke Williams, 2009, on p.4, is that it separates design from production far greater than other industries and is still common despite the deficiencies of traditional procurement and the benefits offered by the newer and more flexible approaches. In traditional method of procurement, the design stage is separated from production by a tendering period. McGeorge and Palmer, 2002 on p.54, also support this view and quote à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“by comparison with other industries the separation of the process of design and construction is unique to the construction industryà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. Construction industry provides successful projects, the outcome of which is increased efficiency, greater borrowing capacity and payback à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" long-term worth. The business objectives should always drive the selection of an appropriate procurement strategy, so as to procure a project to the complete satisfaction of the client. The procurement strategy so selected would depend on many factors; namely the client, the risk profile of the client, the cost certainty needed, accountability, flexibility, the type of project, time, funding, market condition, the industries capacity and capability. 1.11.1 Projects priorities: Moreover the factors that are to be considered while analysing a business objectives requirements and their relative priorities as pointed out by Kelly et al., 2002 on p.178 are as listed below: Factors outside the control of the project team Client resources Project characteristics Ability to make changes Risk management Cost issues Timing Quality and performance The choice of the strategy should ensure that control is maintained over those factors that are important to the clients perspective of the project. 1.11.2 Procurement strategy: The authors also state that the choice of the strategy should ensure that control is maintained over those factors that are of most importance to the client. After a selection is made, a strategic brief will need to be produced defining the clientà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s project and the parameters within which the project must be realised to take the project to a success. Often less importance is imparted to the projectà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s objectives as compared to the primary criteria of time, quality and cost. These three primary parameters form the key criteria in the selection mechanism and are interdependent of each other. Therefore, procurement strategies adopted for the project would not be able to deliver all of them as high priority. For example, fast-track solutions for a project deliver speed and time certainty, whereas the other criteria such as cost certainty and quality may be less achievable. Similarly, in projects where quality or costs are considered to be of top priority, then the other criteria are affected. Hence, if a high priority is imparted in defining the project and especially linking of the prioritisation of objectives to the business case, greater then are the chances of a successful procurement of the project to the entire satisfaction of the client. However, from the clientà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s perspective of a project, time, quality, cost and functionality are important criteria for the success of a project. The client generally prefers the highest quality at the lowest cost and the project being completed in the shortest possible time. As earlier mentioned it is not possible to attain all these parameters together for a given project. Depending upon the clientà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s business objectives, a suitable selection of the procurement strategy should be chosen. 1.11.3 Procurement option: If according to the client, a signature building is required for the project, then a traditional or design-bid-build strategy is an appropriate option for the project. For this project, quality would be very essential but this procurement technique adopts a sequential nature of activities, and therefore has no parallel working activity, which means that, construction could actually begin only after the design is completed as fully as possible. Hence is not suitable option for any fast track projects. However, this option fairly provides with cost certainty and time predicted. The delay experienced in completion of the project might be because considerable time is allowed for the design to take a full shape and thereafter in the preparation of detailed brief and also in the tendering procedures required to be completed before the start of the work. Therefore, an early start of the project would not be possible until the letter of intend is issued, which in turn have a knock on effect on the overall cost of the project (price escalation, inflation etc.). Sometimes the client might go in for a functional building where cost implication is to be the lowest and had to be completed before a fixed date. Here in order to meet the business objectives, a design-build procurement technique is quite appropriate, since early certainty of the overall contract price could be obtained. Moreover, as this strategy facilitates overlapping of design and construction, a faster start on site is possible resulting in shorter project duration with greater certainty of meeting the targeted date. Hence, this option is quite suitable for fast track projects but is not suitable for any complex infrastructural projects and also in projects wherein the clients brief is uncertain or inadequate. Alternatively, the client would require procuring a huge and complex infrastructural project with an emphasis on the targeted date of completion. Considering the clients business objective, the appropriate procurement route would be construction management, which is best-suited option for fast track and complex construction projects. In this procurement route, the construction work is divided into several packages, which are tendered separately to different experienced and qualified contractors. Hence, in this procurement method design, tendering and construction over lap thereby reducing the overall time of the project whereas there could be price uncertainty until the last package of the work had been awarded to a contractor. Due to the speed in completion, quality of the work would probably be effected and therefore a total quality management team would be required to ensure the quality of work during its progress. Therefore, this procurement route is not suitable for inexperience d clients and for those clients trying to transfer risk to the contractor. Therefore, the procurement strategy developed should strike a balance between risks that could cause an impact on the clients business and the projects objectives. Some projects could adopt more than one procurement option for the successful completion of the project as per the clientsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ perspective. Traditional approach may be used in the construction of the shell and core, whereas construction management would be used for the final works. The choices made might differ between clients of various projects depending upon their knowledge and experience of the industry. The scale and diversity of those involved in this industry is too enormous and hence this contributes to enormous pressures on the project teams, to ensure that the project completion is on time, budget and quality. 1.12 Risk: The diversity of those involved in the industry namely design engineers, architects, consultants, main and subcontractors, suppliers and constructional managers is huge. However, all those who are involved in this industry throughout the world strive together to establish a strategic framework to meet the budgetary and scheduling goals of the project. Time is one of the critical factors in construction industry, which has significant legal consequences. The client sets up rigid start and finishes dates for the project and if the contractor must comply with this period, barring any delay caused due to natural calamities, or lose money by paying the liquidated damages as laid down in the contract document. During the construction process delay in receiving of materials, equipments and services may erode profits. For a successful completion of a project, lot depends on the quality of the subcontractors and suppliers. Therefore, construction organisations should ensure that an appropriate subcontractor is selected. The subcontractorà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s selection process involves many important factors including the evaluation of their capacity and also in performing a SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) analysis. The risk faced in construction industry is different from that of other industries. This is quite evident while analysing the difference between manufacturing risks and construction risks as indicated by Benton and McHenry 2010, on p.2 as shown below: Risk versus reward for the manufacturing sector Risk versus reward for the construction sector In construction industry, the potential for committing mistakes is high and facing problems is magnified by the poor interrelationship that exists between all the entities involved namely, the client, architect, consultant, project manager, contractors and suppliers. The risks, if not mitigated in time, would prove disastrous and hence, recommended to be avoided at an early stage. Construction risks as mentioned by Benton and McHenry 2010, on p.3 are as narrated below: Internal financial problems Working capital problems Slow payment from the client Inferior plans and specifications Inadequate technical capabilities Insufficient information technology Lack of communication between the entities Productivity inefficiencies Work quality problems Work method problems Delivery reliability problems Bulk materials quality problems Another notable difference between the manufacturing and construction industry is the probability of failure while considering the labour element. This can be clearly understood if an improvement curve technique is performed as explained by Benton and McHenry 2010, on p.4 and p.5 for both industries, the figures of which are as shown below: Probability of failure for the manufacturing industry Probability of failure for the construction industry The improvement curve is exponential and depicts a constant-percentage reduction of labour, which means that, the workers learn how to do their job better as they produce more and more units at a lower production cost. This advantage is accomplished due to the impact of cumulative learning by experience, which is possible in the manufacturing industry. Now considering the construction industry, which is constantly changing its complexity over time, we can observe that the learning phase in the learning curve would be present for every single project accomplished and the steady state phase of the learning curve is not satisfactorily achieved, thereby affecting the productivity in the construction industry. Unlike the widgets mass produced in a manufacturing industry, the finished product in construction is customised and cannot be a mass-produced. Therefore, the operation function that shows improvement in the manufacturing sector has quite a different profile in the construction industry and remains constant for the traditional construction organisation. From the figures shown above, the probability of failure after the completion of the 20th construction project is still seen to be high, whereas in a manufacturing process, after the production of the 20th unit, the probability of failure is seen to be low. This study clearly indicates that each construction project is a unique as it is constructed to the entire satisfaction of the client, and therefore it is possible to duplicate construction projects on large scale in order to improve the learning curve thereby improving efficiency and adding value to the client. 1.13 Conclusion: Construction industry had evolved and progressed over the yearà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s right from the start of industrial revolution in the 1970s. The growth of industrialisation and urbanisation resulted in the creation of a new and expanding market for this industry. The industry had to face many problems due to lack of cooperation and integration between the design and construction of projects. The industry had changed many operating systems during its growth most of which had been imposed on from outside the industry especially through clients. The heavy demands for construction projects and the acute shortage of labour especially after World War II resulted in the search of new construction methods in order to reduce the amount of site labour and to increase productivity for the industry.

Teaching - 2569 Words

Thus suggesting practitioners should embrace and accept the approach enabling them to â€Å"adopt learning strategies that embed the acquisition of knowledge and skills into meaningful context† (Macleod-Brudenell and Kay, 2008, p.311). Moss and Petrie (2002) support this concept by stating â€Å"pedagogy can be used to refer to whole domain of social responsibility for children, for their well-being, learning and competence† (p.138). Pugh and Duffy (2006) suggest a pedagogue is the one who leads and educates children’s learning. This effectively impacts upon children’s learning and enables them to become confident learners. As well as encouraging children to be in control of their own interests and learning (Every child matters, 2004). Allen and†¦show more content†¦It could be argued that even though all three curriculums support the concept that the role of adults is extremely important within Early Year’s they each take different views. The EYFS tends to be a combination of the two as they maintain the need for children to be able to participate in child initiated activities as well as adult led activities (Allen and Whalley, 2010). Additionally, Kinney and Wharton (2007) indicate Reggio Emilia places a huge emphasis on working as co-constructors, whereas High Scope places more of an emphasis on the children choosing their play for themselves. A main similarity of High Scope and EYFS is that both place an importance on child centred, adult led learning. Similarly both EYFS and High Scope have specific areas for learning, for example; Role play. This can effectively promote good practice as it is including all types of learners and ensuring all children have the same opportunities. Curtis and O’Hagan (2009) assert that High Scope supports Reggio Emilia’s philosophy and the EYFS and clarifies the role of the adult as practitioners who enhance and support children’s learning. As well as individuals who can build positive interactions between themselves and the children to be able to successfully interact with each other. ThisShow MoreRelatedThe Teaching Of Language Teaching797 Words   |  4 Pageslanguage learner as they need to communicate with others. There is no doubt that different people learn languages in different ways and thus, there are various methods and approaches in the field of language teaching and learning to meet learners’ and teachers’ needs. The humanistic language teaching, which was really popular in the 1970s, is not easy to be defined. It is difficult to explain the terms like humanistic and humanism. As Underhill (1983, p.131) said, ‘it is so emotionally loaded and so lackingRead MoreTeaching Meth ods And Styles Of Teaching848 Words   |  4 PagesEvery boss or teacher has his or her own teaching or leadership styles. There are various factors that determine one’s teaching method including the school mission, students’ likes and dislikes, number of students in a class, teacher’s educational philosophy, subjects they teach, and the purpose of instructions intended to be given to students (John 24). So, every teacher should choose a favorable method to teach students. This paper wishes to compare and contrast the styles of two of my teachersRead MoreDifference Between Teaching And Teaching Styles1667 Words   |  7 Pageshas a different teaching method, some people may think that the teaching methods are the same, but it is slightly different. This difference may be due to the different subjects that the teachers are teaching or just the difference in personalities and teaching styles that each teacher has. These differences greatly affect studentsâ€℠¢ performances in numerous of ways that one could not possibly think of. I had observed in several of my classes to compare and contrast different teaching styles from myRead MoreTeaching Principles Of The Game Teaching Essay1782 Words   |  8 Pages3. Teaching principles in the use of the game teaching If teachers want to play a better role of game teaching, they must focus more on the following points. First, game contents and methods require national design. Based on game teaching, teachers will reasonably and flexibly arrange teaching activities, avoiding excessive interference on students. Through a series of activities, students’ attentions are kept so that the whole learning goes toward the direction of teaching principles. Second, gameRead MoreTeaching Methods And Strategies For Teaching Styles866 Words   |  4 Pagesa debate on what kind of teaching styles work best, what the best curriculum to teach is, or how to effectively organize your classroom. Yet, nobody has discovered what the most effective teaching methods are. As future teachers, we must constantly be making decisions that will shape us into the teacher we would like to become. Over the course of the next four years, and even once we become teachers with classrooms of our own, we will be exposed to many different teaching methods and strategies. ThereRead MoreOne Model Of Co Teaching Is Station Teaching992 Words   |  4 PagesOne model of co-teaching is station teaching. This is done when both teachers have shared responsibility for a lesson and are giving the less at the same time typically in the same classroom. Students are asked to move around the room in groups to each station after a set period of time so that they may receive all of the lessons presented at each station. One major advantage of this particular co-teaching method is that it involves both teachers so that responsibility for lesson planning andRead MoreGraduation Speech On Teaching And Learning And Interactive Teaching940 Words   |  4 Pagesenrolled in the Certificate in the University Teaching (CUT) program in spring 2014 right after completing the FUT program in winter 2014. Through the GS901 workshops, I learned about students’ traits and attitudes toward learning and interactive teaching through active learning. With regards to course design, I learned the importance of having an organized, yet flexible, course plan that is designed in equilibrium with course objectives and assessments. Teaching observation practicum, provided me withRead MoreTraditional Teaching Method Versus New Teaching Method1262 Words   |  6 Pagesgenerations which are considered the drive to innovation, social and economical growth (Damodharan Rengarajan 07). As mentioned by Damodharan and Rengara jan, the measure of efficiency in teaching narrows down to the methodology used in the teaching system. Frankly speaking, if we consider the available methods for teaching, the debate will definitely occur between the traditional teacher-centered systems versus more contemporary student – centered approach. Being told what to do to get an A is not simplyRead MoreThe Importance Of Teaching Writing899 Words   |  4 Pageswriting is a sub skill. Teacher E says, â€Å"[i]t’s a sub skill of course. It’s a sub skill but they are marked on it† (D3, line172). Like teachers, students perceive writing in the same way, Banan observed that teachers do not give much importance to teaching writing: Ive noticed that there is not much concern for writing. In the first level, they used to give us paragraphs and then let us write, memorize and train ourselves. We never had a real training on writing. They just let us write paragraphsRead MoreReflection On Effective Teaching1498 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction In this analysis, my objective is to reflect on effective teaching and learning strategies and methods, using my personal experience in the classroom, as well as wider reading/research and university lectures, including my contextual analysis on my placement school (see appendix one). However, since there are so many dynamics to effective teaching and learning, one cannot put a finger on a single aspect and use that as a solution. With this in mind, I have chosen to look at two foci

Morals and Ethics of Cloning Free Essays

Regardless of what our future holds, it will be based on the decisions we make today.   Those decisions can be made using the Utilitarian Theory which states that we are doing good for the greatest number of people.   Using Rule Utilitarianism â€Å"which maintains that a behavioral code or rule is morally right if the consequences of adopting that rule are more favorable than unfavorable to everyone. We will write a custom essay sample on Morals and Ethics of Cloning or any similar topic only for you Order Now (IEP)† is justifiably noted that if a consensus is formed on the basis of rules that govern cloning, and these rules are broken, the appropriate punishment will result. This is because cloning a human will not benefit the society as a whole; it would do more harm than good.   We all have rules that govern our society over what is right or wrong and we know that these rules are set forth to maintain order.   We have laws because it benefits the majority of the people. Principles of Consequences state that when looking at the end result, the correct action will be the action that produces the greatest amount of happiness (Usury).   To decide if human cloning produces the greatest amount of happiness we have one question still in need of an answer is â€Å"Are human embryos really human?† Well, the term ‘human’ proceeding the term ’embryo’ should adequately answer the question. The embryo are cloned from human tissue, contain human DNA, thus there is likely a 100 percent chance that the embryos are indeed human, as opposed to being tadpole embryos. Therefore, biologically speaking a clone is no less a human than you or I. And using that human for tissue simply because he/she was cloned rather than conceived does not validate the notion, nor skip around the moral and ethical implications of taking the life of another human being.   Death is not a happy occasion therefore it does not produce the greatest amount of happiness to the majority of the population. Cloning is the process of taking cells from a donor, placing them in a culture dish where the nutrients are  minimal, so the cells stop dividing and switch their â€Å"active genes†. The cells are then put next to an unfertilized egg. The nucleus is sucked out of the egg leaving an empty egg cell containing all the cellular machinery necessary to produce an embryo. An electric shock is used to fuse the egg and cell together. A second shock is then used to mimic the act of fertilization and help begin cell division. After the egg has successfully moved to the stage of an embryo it is then placed in to the uterus of a surrogate mother. When born, all the genes are the same as the donor of the cell. In 1997 Dr. Ian Wilmut, a British scientist successfully cloned a sheep named Dolly.   This turned the scientific world upside-down. The success of the experiment is considered by all as an amazing achievement in science. However, ethics and morals must surface to regulate cloning. It is understood that individuality is the most important part of life. Individuality is given to a person at birth and considered a right they will have for rest of their life. There is also a fear that the clone may only be produced to live the life of the clone, thus causing severe emotional damage as well pain and suffering for the clone. The progression of the clone may be limited, the advance in idea development will slowly die off. Evolution could come to a halt, because with clones, diversity will be limited and there will not be as many advances in society. The cells, in all humans, will all be the same and there will not be a process of natural selection and diversity. Another controversial question facing the cloning process is: How will the clones be treated? The emotions of the clones need to be taken in to consideration; after all they are humans too. â€Å"What is common to these various views, however, is a shared understanding that being a ‘person’ is different from being the manipulated ‘object’ of other peoples desires and expectations†(Biomedical Ethics).   People, as clones, will be studied, prodded, and poked which in turn will cause much unwanted anxiety and emotional distress. There will also be problems with relationships between parents and the clone for understandable reasons.   It will bring up a lot of unwelcome stress for the clone when one â€Å"parent† is an anonymous donor of an egg and the other is Dr. Frankenstein. Some may argue that a child is a child and the parents should love their child unconditionally.   However, the bond between the clone and the parents who care for the clone may have awkward encounters.   The love and affection that is provided for most children will not be the same due to the fact that the clone is considered to be more of an experiment rather than a child. Another argument may be that artificial insemination has already taken the step of engineering babies.   However, artificial insemination is used for parents who can not have children but feel they could provide a loving environment for them. Despite the abundant differences and backgrounds of the world today all most people agree that coitus (sex)  is the naturally preferred way to conceive a child.   With the cloning process the necessity to have coitus will not be needed.   â€Å"Is there something about the individual that is lost when the mystical act of conceiving a person becomes standardized into a mere act of photocopying one† (Time)? The parent’s will not have to conceive a child, just order one from a catalog and have it arrive next day air.   It will take away the personal feeling and romance   that having â€Å"a child of   your own† creates. Part of the bliss of having a child is the mystery behind it. Is it a boy? A girl? Who does it look like?   Cloning will take away from the pleasures that have been happening for countless years and the elements of surprise will fade in to mail order babies. Another very touchy issue is the question of, is the medical world   taking to much control?   It is stated by scientists that if they are allowed to clone people, one won’t have to worry about organ donations or blood drives in order for people to survive. The scientists will  simply clone an organ and replace the faulty one in the human. As simple as this seems, the issue of who they can use to clone comes up.   Finding the ideal person to clone is hard enough, now try to get one with the right blood type, size, and gender. The numbers decrease and it seems as if the scientists would have to clone someone for each person.   If this is true, would the clones be stored somewhere, or able to roam around the world until they were needed to fill their role?   Once again the rights of the clones come up and the thought of clone farms creates a sort of â€Å"yuck† factor for everyone. According to Time Magazine,   â€Å"Out of 277 tries, the researchers eventually produced only 29 embryos that survived longer than six days† out of the remaining 29 only one survived and was born. The percentage is very low leaving people wondering if it is  even worth the time and effort put in.   â€Å"Some clones may indeed be growing old before their time†(U.S. News).   The research states that the clones will not live a whole life due to the one cell that has been cloned is older and effects the rest of the clones cells making them advance prematurely.  Ã‚   Instead of using science to lengthen the life of a human cloning will decrease the length of life by half. Scientists need to reconsider how they are manipulating the world.   Based on the information provided through the research, doctors should step back and take a look at the morals and ethics of cloning humans and evaluate if it is really worth the risk doctors are taking. The bad consequences out way the good, therefore we cannot assume that the benefit of human cloning will solve life’s problems.   To this day we have yet to find a cure for the common cold.   This is because most diseases have a way of surviving, as did the human race during the ice age.   Everything finds a way to adapt to it’s environment and if the benefits major benefit for cloning is to cure diseases, then we are at a loss.   The fight for life â€Å"survival of the fittest† can sum it up. If we result to cloning as a means for reproduction, then who is to say that our bodies might not adapt to this, only allowing for this type of reproduction?   Only then will we realize that in our effort to gain knowledge and power over every other living thing, did we fail.   Everything on this earth has to be in perfect balance, and when we continue to tamper with Mother Nature, she finds a way to fight back.  Ã‚   For example, the ozone layer is being depleted because of chemical agents produced and released into the atmosphere by man.   As a result, the ozone layer can longer protect our skin as it used too, causing more cases of skin cancer every year.   I believe that if you push someone, or in this case, something (Mother Nature) hard enough, she will push back.   We need to take things as they are given to us, the good and the bad.   When we try to beat the odd, sometimes the odds beat us. Bibliography Biomedical Ethics Opposing Viewpoints. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, Inc, 1998 Cloning (1998).   How to Clone a Human (Version 1.1). [On-line] Biofact November 8, 1999. Available: http://www.biofact.com/cloning/human.html Cloning (1998).   Human Cloning Plans.   [On-line] NPR  Ã‚   November 8, 1999 Available â€Å"Dolly, Polly, Gene-send in the clones† Science News.   January 23, 1997.   pp.127 Cloning (1999).   Should Cloning Be Banned?   [On-line] Reasons  Ã‚   November 5, 1999 Available: http://www.reasons.com /biclone.html Kluger, Jeffrey.   â€Å"Goodbye, Dolly† Time  Ã‚   June 7, 1999. pp.70 Nash, J.   â€Å"The Age of Cloning†Ã‚   Time   March 10, 19997. pp.60-75 Macklin, Ruth.   â€Å"Human cloning?   Don’t just say no†. U.S. News World Report. March10, 1997. pp. 64 Couzin, Jennifer   â€Å"What’s Killing The Clones?†Ã‚   U.S. News World Report.   May24, 1999.   pp.65 How to cite Morals and Ethics of Cloning, Essay examples

Motives And Effectiveness Of Leaders †Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Motives And Effectiveness Of Leaders? Answer: Introducation Among the several leadership studies conducted, the trait approach to leadership theory is the study that has been successful in withstanding the test of time. The result of this study is that it has been successfully established that there are certain personal characteristics and skills that contributed the effectiveness of leadership under several situations. In the present essay, the leadership trait theory will be evaluated and it will be critically analyzed with the help of real life examples. In this regard, there are certain personality traits described by the researchers that are used by effective leaders. These traits include trustworthiness, warmth, high tolerance for frustration, self-confidence, assertiveness, enthusiasm, extroversion, emotional stability and self-confidence (Alves, Manz and Butterfield, 2005). It is an exhaustive list, and certainly it cannot be expected that all these trades will be present in a single leader. However, they present an excellent base of study. At least the good leaders should acknowledge the benefits provided by each of these personality traits. For example, opened relations can be promoted by a leader with his followers if he or she has a good sense of humor. In the same way, the enthusiasm of the leaders certainly helps in motivating the staff (Ayman, 2004). It is the finding of several leadership style theories that obviously the situation will significantly impact the mix of personality traits held by a leader or at least the traits that such a leader expresses to hold. For instance, assertiveness may be emphasized by a politician through his or her decision-making, as well as the high tolerance for frustration in turbulent times, but such leaders may not be able to establish a sense of humor (Casimir and Waldman, 2007). As the politician cannot show all the personality traits that have been mentioned in the trait theory, it certainly cannot be said that such a person is not a good leader. Such a situation only means that situational leadership is used by a good leader for the purpose of adapting their personality traits to respective environment of leader-follower (Daft and Lane, 2005)). It can be said in this context, that there are certain personality traits that lend themselves to particular jobs. For example, there are certain persons who have established themselves as remarkable leaders in their current positions as a result of their personality, but the same persons have proved to be ineffective leaders while they were acting in some other position. Therefore, it can be said that while a leader may adapt its behavior to particular situation, there are certain underlying personality traits present that cannot be hidden. There can be a huge difference between these personalities and behaviors (Davis and Rothstein, 2006). They can be very effective or disastrous, keeping in view the situation. It has also been stated in this regard that often the leaders are in a position to adjust their behavior according to the people under them. However, if they had been there for a long time, people will find out (Deng and Gibson, 2008). The meaning of this situation is that the behavioral traits can be superficial. While dealing with the issue of good leadership, it needs to be kept in mind that trust and honesty may be excepted by inconsistent behaviors. As a result, a person is required to be careful while incorporating new behaviors in their style of leadership, particularly when such behavioral traits are not in tune with the underlying personality characteristics of such a person (Lin, 2009). It has been said that the task related personality traits of both leaders include courage, flexibility, passion, adaptability, locus of control and emotional intelligence. All these traits are particularly related with the way in which the leaders view their last and also the drive of the leaders to achieve these tasks. Particularly the significance of emotional intelligence in a leadership situation has been well recognized (Trevio, Weaver and Brown, 2008). It has been claimed that without emotional intelligence, a person will not be in a position to lead anybody anywhere. It is also believed by many experts that empathy for the situation of the people is most important for maintaining trust. Generally it has been seen that the people only want to be heard and understood (Resick, Hanges, Dickson and Mitchelson, 2006). Therefore it is important for a leader to have an awareness regarding the feelings of people, which allows it to pitch their conversation at the level that has the mos t impact. As a result, it can be assumed that the trait of emotional intelligence is a personality trait that enjoys universal appeal irrespective of the position of the leader or the situation. The trait of emotional intelligence helps in all communication. Similarly, it can be used as a point of leverage during the conversations that a leader as with his followers. When a reader is able to understand his or her followers, the followers are also more likely to understand the leader (Robinson and Harvey, 2008). There are a number of behavioral and personality traits studies that have been conducted over time, even if, keeping in view the interest of studying good leadership, it is important that the person also considers the motives that every great leader has. In this regard, there are four motives that have been described by the experts and all of these needs to be considered as task related. These motives include power motive, tenacity, drive and achievement and strong work ethic. It is denoted by the power motive that there is a strong need on the part of an effective leader to control resources and also at the termination of exerting their power. For example, Kim Jong II may have a strong power motive when he rules his country with an iron fist, and he also has the need to control the people and the resources of the nation. It has been said by the experts in this context that a sense of fulfillment is obtained by the leaders when they are able to influence people. Therefore, perhaps influence can be described as the simplest form of power that all the leaders enjoy over their followers (Robinson and Harvey, 2008). Obviously, there is the drive and achievement motive. It is required that the study focused on good leadership should concentrate on this motive. The reason is that this motive promotes an effective work environment. It acts as a greatest motivation. It has also been said that the most effective leaders receive motivation from the need to accomplish and developing their ego. A leader enjoys a lot when he is told that he could see is a great leader. Such a comment is an ultimate reward for the leader. Therefore, it becomes possible to realize the close link that is present between recognition and accomplishment. While the leaders may be motivated for achieving a particular task but they may also be doing so due to the expected knowledge. The leaders may try to receive this acknowledgment because it generally flows down the hierarchy and is less seen flowing up the hierarchy. In this way, in context of the leadership motive theory, apart from brides and achievement motive, there is another motive that can be described as acknowledgment. Strong work ethic has also been described as a motive. That is possessed by the effective leaders. This motive is also required to be studied by the students of good leadership. The reason is that this motive encourages dedicated, hard work environment. It is also being found that it is appropriate to study this motive because there are certain leaders who lead mainly by example. Such leaders have strong work ethic. Therefore, they rely on the fact that other people will observe their work practices. The dedication and commitment to one's work can influence the followers and it will also create respect for the leader among the followers. Another reason is that no one likes a lazy boss (Yan and Hunt, 2005)). It is important for every student of good leadership to study leadership traits, motives and characteristics. It also needs to be acknowledged that there are a number of personal traits that contribute in the effectiveness of leadership. It also needs to be understood the significance of these traits varies in accordance with the position or the situation in which they are practiced. Therefore, close attention needs to be paid to the difference that exists between personality traits and effective leadership behavioral traits as they directly influence the perception of the followers' regarding the leader. It is also important that a subjective view is taken by a person regarding the leadership motive theory so that a distinction can be maintained between their own motives and they can acknowledge this situation that would be most suitable for them. References Alves, J.C., Manz, C.C., and Butterfield, D.A. (2005) Developing Leadership Theory in Asia: The role of chinese philosophy. International Journal of Leadership Studies, 1, 3-27. Ayman, R. 2004. Situational and contingency approaches to leadership, In J. Antonakis, A. Cianciolo R.J. Sternberg (Eds.), The Nature of leadership, 148-170, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Casimir, G., and Waldman, D.A. (2007) A cross cultural comparison of the importance of leadership traits for effective low level and high level leaders, International Journal of Cross Cultural Management. 7(1), 47-60 Daft, R. L., and Lane, P. G. (2005) The leadership experience. (3rd ed.). Mason, Ohio: Thomson/South-Western. Davis, A., and Rothstein, H. (2006) The effects of the perceived behavioral integrity of managers on employee attitudes: A meta-analysis. Journal of Business Ethics, 67, 407419. Deng, L. and Gibson, P. (2008) A qualitative evaluation on the role of cultureal intelligence on cross-cultural leadership effectiveness, International Journal of Leadership Studies, 3 (2), 181-197 Lin, C. (2009). Cultural influences on moral reasoning capacities of purchasing managers: a comparison across the Taiwan strait. International Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 37 (2), 203-208 Resick, C.J., Hanges, P.J., Dickson, M.W., and Mitchelson, J.K. (2006) A cross cultural examination of the endorsement of ethical leadership Journal of Business Ethics, 2006, 345-359 Robinson, D.A., and Harvey, M (2008) Global leadership in a culturally diverse world, Management Decision, 46, 466-480 Trevio, L. K., Weaver, G. R., and Brown, M. E., (2008) Its lovely at the top: Hierarchical levels, identities, and perceptions of organizational ethics. Business Ethics Quarterly 18(2): 233-253. Yan, J., and Hunt, J. G. (2005) A cross cultural perspective on perceived leadership effectiveness, International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 5, 49-66

The Hobbit Book Review Essays - The Hobbit, New Zealand Films

The Hobbit Book Review The Hobbit Book Review The main character of the book is Mr. Bilbo Baggins. He is the Hobbit who led the Dwarves to the Lonely Mountain to reclaim their treasure from the dragon named Smaug. Bilbo is middle aged and resides in a clean, warm burrow dug into the side of a hill. In the beginning of the story Bilbo is a very weak character. He is easily frightened, and very shy. One of his strengths though, is that he is of the mythical race called Hobbits. Hobbits are known for their skills in thievery and spying. There are two main characteristics of Hobbits that separate them from normal humans. One, Hobbits are very small. They only grow to reach the height of about three feet if they are lucky. Secondly, they have large feet that are covered at the tops by thick hair. This hair is used to keep the hobbit's feet warm because they do not wear boots. Another characteristic of hobbits is that they normally don't wish for any excitement or adventure. They thrive on repetition and dull activities such as gardening. Hobbits also love to eat. Bilbo's favorite foods are: cake, bacon, sausage, eggs, wine, bread and any other fattening things that can be thought of. Some other important characters are as follows. Gandalf, he is the wizard that accompanies Bilbo and the dwarves on their quest. Thorin Oakenshield is son of the king of the dwarves who were driven from the Lonely Mountain. Smaug is the dragon of the Lonely Mountain who hordes the treasure he stole. Gollum is a slimy creature that was born a Hobbit but had the ring too long; this is the character that Bilbo steals the ring from. Bard is the archer that kills Smaug. Bilbo is the main character of the story and also the narrator. The main conflict of the story line is Bilbo vs. Himself. Bilbo has to overcome his fears of dragons and other creatures in order to carry out his part of the mission. Another conflict is the whole party vs. Smaug. The party of dwarves along with Bilbo and Gandalf, have to be able to destroy the dragon in order to claim their so deserved treasure. Bilbo completes this task by finding the dragon's weak spot and relaying the location to an archer in Lake Town. Both of these conflicts are won by the end of the story. The book begins with Bilbo enjoying a pipe after breakfast. This is one of his favorite pleasures and he feels quite content in doing so. As Bilbo smokes his pipe, Gandalf stops by to have a chat with Bilbo. He informs Bilbo that he is looking for someone to go on an adventure with him. Although Bilbo is tempted to accept the offer, he declines. Before Gandalf leaves Bilbo decides to invite him for tea the next morning. The next morning instead of the wizard at the door, there is a group of dwarves... thirteen in all. Bilbo is astounded! They are all very rude; they enter Bilbo's burrow in groups of twos. The dwarfs outline a plan on how to regain the treasure that is rightfully their own but has been stolen by the evil dragon Smaug. Bilbo is astounded to notice that he is in the plans. The dwarves plan to use Bilbo to steal the treasure from Smaug. After a lot of arguing and convincing, Bilbo decides to join in the dwarves' quest. Gandalf gives the party a key and a map of their journey which ends at the Lonely Mountain. It is there that the treasures of Thorin's ancestors are kept-guarded by Smaug. The quest begins when the party meets at the Green Dragon Inn. From there they venture into the Lone-lands. As heavy rains begin to fall, Bilbo notices that Gandalf is missing. This is something that is later on considered to be normal because Gandalf comes and goes throughout the duration of the trip. All through the quest Bilbo ends up saving the party from many dangerous situations. This is something that at first Bilbo finds hard to believe because he has very low self-esteem. The party gets into many jams during the trip, but they always escape them through the help of Bilbo and some times Gandalf. Some of these jams are: getting caught by trolls, getting captured by goblins, being attacked by large wolves called Wargs, one of the dwarves falls into a coma from touching black water in the Mirkwood Forest, near starvation, being captured

Anastasio Somoza García, President of Nicaragua

Anastasio Somoza Garcà ­a, President of Nicaragua Anastasio Somoza Garcà ­a (Feb. 1, 1896–Sept. 29, 1956) was a Nicaraguan general, president, and dictator from 1936 to 1956. His administration, while being one of the most corrupt in history and brutal to dissidents, was nevertheless supported by the United States because it was viewed as anti-communist. Fast Facts: Anastasio Somoza Garcà ­a Known For: Nicaraguan general, president, dictator, and founder of the Somoza Dynasty of NicaraguaBorn: Feb. 1, 1896 in San Marcos, NicaraguaParents: Anastasio Somoza Reyes and Julia Garcà ­aDied: Sept. 29, 1956 in Ancà ³n, Panama Canal ZoneEducation: Peirce School of Business Administration, Philadelphia, PennsylvaniaSpouse(s): Salvadora Debayle SacasaChildren: Luis Somoza Debayle, Anastasio Somoza Debayle, Julio Somoza Debayle, Lilliam Somoza de Sevilla-Secasa Early Years and Family Anastasio Somoza Garcà ­a was born on Feb. 1, 1986, in San Marcos, Nicaragua, as a member of the Nicaraguan upper-middle class. His father Anastasio Somoza Reyes served as a Conservative Party senator from the department of Carazo for eight years. In 1914, he was elected vice-secretary of the Senate. He was also a signer of the Bryan-Chamorro Treaty in 1916. His mother Julia Garcà ­a was from a wealthy family of coffee planters. At the age of 19, after a family scandal, Somoza Garcia was sent to live with relatives in Philadelphia, where he attended Peirce School of Business Administration (now Peirce College). In Philadelphia, Somoza met and courted Salvadora Debayle Sacas, who had a politically well-connected family that objected to the marriage. Nevertheless, in 1919 they married in Philadelphia in a civil ceremony. They had a Catholic ceremony in Leon Cathedral when they returned to Nicaragua. They returned to Nicaragua and had a formal Catholic wedding in Leà ³n Cathedral. While in Leà ³n, Anastasio tried and failed at running several businesses: automobile sales, boxing promoter, meter reader for an electric company, and inspector of latrines at the Rockefeller Foundations Sanitary Mission to Nicaragua. He even tried counterfeiting Nicaraguan currency and only avoided prison because of his family connections. U.S. Intervention in Nicaragua The United States became directly involved in Nicaraguan politics in 1909 when it supported a rebellion against President Jose Santos Zelaya, who had long been an opponent of U.S. policies in the area. In 1912, the United States sent Marines to Nicaragua to bolster the conservative government. The Marines remained until 1925 and as soon as they left, liberal factions went to war against the conservatives. The Marines returned after only nine months away and stayed until 1933. Beginning in 1927, renegade general Augusto Cà ©sar Sandino led a revolt against the government, which lasted until 1933. Somoza and the Americans Somoza had gotten involved in the presidential campaign of Juan Batista Sacasa, his wife’s uncle. Sacasa had been vice president under a previous administration, which had been overthrown in 1925, but in 1926 he returned to press his claim as the  legitimate president. As the different factions fought, the U.S. was forced to step in and negotiate a settlement. Somoza, with his perfect English and insider’s position in the fracas, proved invaluable to the Americans. When Sacasa finally reached the presidency in 1933, the American ambassador persuaded him to name Somoza head of the National Guard. The National Guard and Sandino The National Guard had been established as a militia, trained and equipped by the U.S. Marines. It was meant to keep in check the armies raised by the liberals and conservatives in their endless skirmishing over control of the country. In 1933 when Somoza took over as head of the National Guard, only one rogue army remained: that of Augusto Cà ©sar Sandino, a liberal who had been fighting since 1927. Sandino’s biggest issue was the presence of American marines in Nicaragua, and when they left in 1933, he finally agreed to negotiate a truce. He agreed to lay down his arms, provided that his men be given land and amnesty. Somoza still saw Sandino as a threat, so in early 1934 he arranged to have Sandino captured. On February 21, 1934, Sandino was executed by the National Guard. Shortly thereafter, Somoza’s men raided the lands that had been given to Sandino’s men after the peace settlement, slaughtering the former guerillas. In 1961, leftist rebels in Nicaragua established the National Liberation Front: in 1963 they added â€Å"Sandinista† to the name, assuming his name in their struggle against the Somoza regime, by then being led by Luà ­s Somoza Debayle and his brother Anastasio Somoza Debayle, Anastasio Somoza Garcà ­a’s two sons. Somoza Seizes Power President Sacasa’s administration was severely weakened in 1934–1935. The Great Depression had spread to Nicaragua and the people were unhappy. In addition, there were many allegations of corruption against him and his government. In 1936, Somoza, whose power had been growing, took advantage of Sacasa’s vulnerability and forced him to resign, replacing him with Carlos Alberto Brenes, a Liberal Party politician who mostly answered to Somoza. Somoza himself was elected in a crooked election, assuming the presidency on January 1, 1937. This began the period of Somoza rule in the country that would not end until 1979. Somoza quickly acted to set himself up as dictator. He took away any sort of real power of the opposition parties, leaving them only for show. He cracked down on the press. He moved to improve ties to the United States, and after the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 he declared war on the Axis powers even before the United States did. Somoza also filled every important office in the nation with his family and cronies. Before long, he was in absolute control of Nicaragua. Height of Power Somoza remained in power until 1956. He stepped down briefly from the presidency from 1947–1950, bowing to pressure from the United States, but continued to rule through a series of puppet presidents, usually family. During this time, he had the complete support of the United States government. In the early 1950s, once again president, Somoza continued to build his empire, adding an airline, a shipping company, and several factories to his holdings. In 1954, he survived a coup attempt and also sent forces to Guatemala to help the CIA overthrow the government there. Death and Legacy On September 21, 1956, Anastasio Somoza Garcà ­a was shot in the chest by young poet and musician Rigoberto Là ³pez Pà ©rez at a party in the city of Leà ³n. Là ³pez was instantly brought down by Somoza bodyguards, but the president’s wounds would prove fatal on September 29. Là ³pez would eventually be named a national hero by the Sandinista government. Upon his death, Somoza’s eldest son Luà ­s Somoza Debayle took over, continuing the dynasty his father had established. The Somoza regime would continue through Luà ­s Somoza Debayle (1956–1967) and his brother Anastasio Somoza Debayle (1967–1979) before being overthrown by the Sandinista rebels. Part of the reason that the Somozas were able to retain power for so long was the support of the U.S. government, which saw them as anti-communist. Franklin Roosevelt allegedly once said of him: â€Å"Somoza may be a son-of-a-bitch, but he’s our son-of-a-bitch.† There is little direct proof of this quote. The Somoza regime was extremely crooked. With his friends and family in every important office, Somozas greed ran unchecked. The government seized profitable farms and industries and then sold them to family members at absurdly low rates. Somoza named himself director of the railway system  and then used it to move his goods and crops at no charge to himself. Those industries that they could not personally exploit, such as mining and timber, they leased to foreign (mostly U.S.) companies for a healthy share of the profits. He and his family made untold millions of dollars. His two sons continued this level of corruption, making Somoza Nicaragua one of the most crooked countries in the history of Latin America. This sort of corruption had a lasting effect on the economy, stifling it and contributing to Nicaragua as a somewhat backward country for a long time. Sources Editors of the Encyclopedia Britannica. Anastasio Somoza: President of Nicaragua. Encyclopedia Britannica, January 28, 2019.Editors of the Encyclopedia Britannica. Somoza Family. Encyclopedia Britannica, August 24, 2012.La Botz, Dan. The Somoza Dynastic Dictatorship (1936–75). What Went Wrong? The Nicaraguan Revolution, A Marxist Analysis, p. 74–75. Brill, 2016.  Merrill, Tim L. (ed.) Nicaragua: A Country Study. Federal Research Division, U.S. Library of Congress, 1994.Otis, John. Dictators daughter wants UPI, April 2, 1992.Walter, Knut. The Regime of Anastasio Somoza, 1936–1956. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1993.

Foreign Direct Investment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Foreign Direct Investment - Essay Example In essence, FDI gives the investor the power to operate a company in another country for the long term. Developed host countries are not too welcome to the idea on the premise that they fear foreign firms will end up dominating their local firms. In contrast to this, developing countries are more welcome to the idea on the grounds that FDI will bring additional capital, expertise and new technology into their country. (Contessi & Weinberger, 2009). Host countries record FDI flows as liabilities along with similar items in their balance of payments. In host countries like these FDI flows make up a large percentage of the total investment in the economy as compared to more developed countries; the effects of FDI on these countries differ as well, with developing countries showing a steady growth trend as compared to developed countries who showed boom and bust cycles as a result of engaging in FDI. (Contessi & Weinberger, 2009). Growth is normally measured by looking at the trends in p er capita GDP growth. Analysts relate FDI to per capita to GDP growth by looking at figures of gross FDI inflows and FDI inflows per capita to see if they have any impact on the economic growth of a country. Research has revealed a positive relationship between FDI levels and growth levels in an economy, in some cases these results have been insignificant as well but these variables have never shared a negative relationship. Extraneous variable have a magnitude changing effect on this relationship. It has been seen that, the more developed a country is, the better and greater positive effect FDI will have on its economic growth. (Contessi & Weinberger, 2009). Most studies that have analyzed the impact of FDI on the economic growth of the host country have found the results to be pretty elusive. Most established relationships are based specifically on the host country’s own specific economic characteristics. Thus it is difficult to generalize these effects and apply them to ot her countries as the findings of a study. However, the probable effects are not completely elusive, as the endogenous growth theory provides framework for the positive linkage between growth and FDI inflows. (Johnson, 2005). A study found that FDI can have a positive effect on growth, given that the host country promotes exports simultaneously. (Balasubramanyam et al, 1996). Another study showed that FDI had a positive impact on growth, but this effect was to be directly proportional to the host country’s level and quality of human capital. (Borensztein et al, 1998). A further study conducted on 50 developed and developing countries also found FDI to be positively impacting host country’s growth rate. (Olofsdotter, 1998). Research revealed that FDI and growth have a positive relationship, the magnitude of which depends on the specific economic conditions of the country in question. (Zhang, 2001). Another study based on research on Latin American countries also had simi lar findings. (Bengoa & Sanchez-Robles, 2003). Some studies on the other hand, found a weak link between FDI and economic growth based on research done on a mix of developed and developing countries. (De Mello, 1999). Other studies, like the one which conducted research on a mix of 72 developing and developed countries found that FDI

What is the relationship between Foucault's concept of Essay

What is the relationship between Foucault's concept of 'governmentality' and recent changes in field of crime control - Essay Example of Knowledge in 1969, Discipline and Punish in 1976, History of Sexuality, Volume 1 in 1976, Herculine Barbin in 1980, and The Use of Pleasure and The Care of Self both in 1984. Foucaults concept of governmentality has a distinct emphasis on self and promotes and encourages the actions that will help us evolve and fosters the relationship to other individuals and organizations by efficient interconnections. It recommends the use of governmental power not so much in terms of constraints and authorities but as a process of producing society that is healthy, literate, virtuous, normal, cultured, national citizens. Foucault sees government as a general technical form, which encompasses everything from ones control of the self to the control of populations. Correspondingly, he feels that the important thing in the political arena is to encourage the cultivation of the appropriate governmentality by politicians. Foucault introduced the term governmentality in a series of lectures that he gave at the College de France on the Birth of Bio politics in 1979 (Marks 2000: 128). These lectures engaged with the changing face of liberalism as a political project in the Reagan and Thatcher administrations. For Foucault, governmentality meant both strategies of organizational governance, in a broad sense, as well as self-governance by those who are made subjects of organizational governance. The concept of governmentality sought to capture new Liberal approaches to political management. The turmoil of World War II influenced his thinking and although his writings seem to cover a varied and widespread spectrum he was constantly looking to receive an understanding of the struggle of individuals against the collective power of the society. He was intrigued by the fact that individuals are controlled by the society at large and why this happens. He is very famous for his book â€Å"Discipline and Punish† written in 1975. This book analyzes the prison system and gave a new

Q Assess the effectiveness of Nathanael West's use of Surreal elements Essay

Q Assess the effectiveness of Nathanael West's use of Surreal elements in 'The Day of the Locust' - Essay Example When the war finally ended, it was called the Great War, because it was thought that no such war would ever be fought again. The next decades did nothing to break the pessimism that many felt about the world's future. The crash in the world financial markets that happened in 1929, the worldwide drought in 1930, conspired to create the Great Depression, a worldwide economic downturn that basically lasted until industry began gearing up for what would be called the Second World War. As a result, the 1930's was a decade of extreme pessimism, which was manifested in a number of ways. The arts produced "case studies, reportage, documentary photography, proletarian literature, and 'social problem' films" with the goal of "reconstruct[ing] the 'hidden' logic of an elusive social reality" (Veitch, xvii). This is the time period in which Nathanael West made his literary mark. Jonathan Veitch makes note of the problems that critics have had in assigning West a particular place within the writing of that time, and American literature as a whole. Different critics described him, variously, as a "poet of darkness," "an apocalyptic writer," "a universal satirist," "a homegrown surrealist," and a "writer of the left." (Veitch xi, xvi). Some of these descriptions have definite contradictions with one another, but they all reflect different elements of the author's persona, and his work. His "style was never constant. At times his pictorial technique closely resembled collage [but also] cartoon strips, movies, and several schools of painting, as well as such non-graphic visual arts as the tableau and the dance." (Schug). While many of West's novels and other writings defy classification, though, The Day of the Locust does not. The surreal elements of this novel place it squarely in the camp of modernist fiction. His technique and methods bear considerable similarity to those of his contemporaries. When one considers some of the commonalities of modernist fiction: violence, decadence, irony, the grotesque, dreams, realism, allusion, distortion, and experimentation (Schug), all of these apply to The Day of the Locust, and many of them are a result of the surrealist techniques that West applies to his novel. The particular target of West's writing in The Day of the Locust is the dilemma that the artist faced when taking on the growing culture industry of the 1930's. The Hollywood industry is both the object of critique in the novel, as well as the subject of the story itself. The book executes a dark criticism of the so-called "dream factory" that Hollywood was in those times (and still is seen to be today) (Blyn). Ironically, those many of the aesthetic techniques at work in the novel owe a debt to that same Hollywood industry that the book itself is attacking. Consider, for example, the riot scene where a star appears at the premiere of a film. Protagonist Tod Hackett is taken away by the police in a squad car: He was carried through the exit to the back street and lifted into a police car. The siren began to scream and at first he thought he was making the noise himself. He felt his lips with his hands. They were clamped tight. He knew then it was the siren. For some reason this made him laugh, and he began to imitate the siren as loud as he could. (185) Clearly, the siren operates as a

Multivariate Multilevel Modeling

Multivariate Multilevel Modeling Literature Review This chapter tying up the various similar studies related to modeling responses multivariately in a multilevel frame work. As a start, this chapter begins by laying out the recent history of univariate techniques for analyzing categorical data in a multilevel context. Then it gradually presents the literature available on fitting multivariate multilevel models for categorical and continuous data. More over this chapter reviews the evidence for imputing missing values for partially observed multivariate multilevel data sets. The Nature of Multivariate Multilevel models A multivariate multilevel model can be considered as a collection of multiple dependent variables in a hierarchical nature. Though the multivariate analysis increases the complexity in a multilevel context, it is an essential tool which facilitates to carry out a single test of the joint effects of some explanatory variables on several dependent variables (Snijders Bosker (2000). These models have the power of increasing the construct validity of the analysis for complex concepts in the real world. Consider a study on school effectiveness which can be measured on three different output variables math achievement, reading proficiency and well-being at school. These data are collected on students those who are clustered within schools by implying a hierarchical nature. Although it is certainly possible to handle three outcomes separately, it is unable to show the overall picture about school effectiveness. Therefore multivariate analysis would be more preferable in these types of scen arios since it has the capability of decreasing the type 1 error and increasing the statistical power (Maeyer, Rymenans, Petegem and Bergh) (Draft). Hierarchical natures of multivariate models are not like as the univariate response models. Let us focus on above example; it implies a two level multivariate model. But in reality it has three levels. In this case, the measurements are the level 1 units, the students the level 2 units and the schools the level three units. Importance of Multivariate Multilevel Modeling Multivariate multilevel data structures may itself present a greater complexity as it leads to focus the multilevel effects together with the multivariate context. Therefore the traditional statistical techniques would fail to face these kinds of areas since it can decrease the statistical efficiency by producing overestimated standard errors. On the other hand violation of independence assumption may cause to under estimate the standard errors of regression coefficients. Therefore multivariate multilevel approaches play an important role to get rid of these kinds of situations by allowing variation at different levels to be estimated. Furthermore Goldstein (1999) has shown that clustering provides accurate standard errors, confidence intervals and significance tests. Some amount of articles have been published on multilevel modeling based on a single response context. Multivariate multilevel concept comes into the field of statistics during the past few years. When people want to identify the effect of set of explanatory variables on a set of dependent variables and by considering these effects separately on response variables, then if it shows a considerable difference among those effects then it can be handled only by means of a multivariate analysis (Snijders Bosker, 2000). Software for Multivariate Multilevel Modeling In the past decades, due to the unavailability of the software for fitting multivariate multilevel data some researchers tend to use manual methods such as EM Algorithm (Kang et al., 1991). As a result of developing the technical environment, the software such as STATA, SAS and S plus are emerged in to the Statistical field by providing facilitates to handle the multilevel data. But none of those packages have a capability of fitting multivariate multilevel data. However there is evidence in the literature that nonlinear multivariate multilevel model can be fitted using packages such as GLLAMM (Rabe-Hesketh, Pickles and Skrondal, 2001) and aML (Lillard and Panis, 2000). But it was not flexible to handle this software. Therefore MlwiN software which has become the under development since late 1980’s was modified at the University of Bristol in UK in order to fulfill that requirement. However, the use of MlwiN for fitting multivariate multilevel models has been challenged by Goldstein, Carpenter and Browne (2014) who concluded that MlwiN was useful if only when fitting the model without imputing for the missing values. However REALCOM software was then came into the field of Statistics and provided the flexibility to impute the missing values in the MLwiN environment. MLwiN is a modified version of DOS MLn program which uses a command driven interface. MLwiN provides flexibility to fitting very large and complex models using both frequentist and Bayesian estimation along with the missing value imputation in a user friendly interface. Some particular advanced features which are not available in the other packages are included in this software. Univariate Multilevel Modeling vs. Multivariate Multilevel Modeling In general, data are often collected on multiple correlated outcomes. One major theoretical issue that has dominated the field for many years is modeling the association between risk factors and each outcome in a separate model. It may cause to statistically inefficient since it ignores outcome correlations and common predictor effects (Oman, Kamal and Ambler) (unpublished) Therefore most of the researches tend to include all related outcomes in a single regression model within a multivariate outcome framework rather than univariate. Recently investigators have examined the comparison between Univariate and Multivariate outcomes and they have proven that Multivariate models would be preferable than several univariate models. According to the Griffiths, Brown and Smith (2004), they conducted a study to compare univariate and multivariate multilevel models for repeated measures of use of antenatal care in Uttar Pradesh, India. In here, they examined many factors which may have a relationship to the mother’s decision to use ante-natal care services for a particular pregnancy. For that they compared Univariate multilevel logistic regression model vs. Multivariate multilevel logistic regression model. However as a result of fitting univariate models, model assumptions became violated and couldn’t get stable parameter estimates. Therefore they preferred the multivariate context rather than the univariate context after performing the analysis. Generalized Cochran Mantel Haenzel Tests for Checking Association of Multilevel Categorical Data. The history of arising the concepts related to Generalized Cochran Mantel Haenzel was streaming to the late 1950’s. Cochran (1958), one of a great Statistician has firstly introduced a test to identify the independence of multiple 2 Ãâ€" 2 tables by extending the general chi-square test for independence of a single 2-way table. In here, the each table consists of one or two additional variables for higher levels to detect the multilevel nature. The test statistic is based on the row totals of each table. The assumption behind is that the cell counts have binomial distribution. As an extension to Cochran’s work, Mantel and Haenzel (1959) extended the Cochran’s test statistic for both row and column totals by assuming the cell counts of each table follows a hypergeommetric distribution. Since Cochran Mantel Hanzel (CMH) statistic has a major limitation on binary data, Landis et al (1978) generalized this test into handle more than two levels. However there is a major drawback of the Generalized Cochran Mantel Haenzel (GCMH) test. This test was unable to handle clustered correlated categorical data. Liang (1985) was proposed a test statistic for get rid of this problem. However that test statistic itself had major problems and it was fail to use. As development of the statistics field, a need for a test statistic capable of handling correlated data and variables with higher levels arouse. Zhang and Boos (1995) coming in to the field and introduced three test statistics TEL TP and TU as a solution to the above problems. However among these three test statistics TP and TU are preferred to TEL since these two use the individual subjects as the primary sampling units while TEL use the strata as the primary sampling unit (De Silva and Sooriyarachchi, 2012). Furthermore, by a simulation study TP shows better performance than TE by maintaining its error values even when the strata are small and it uses the pooled estimators for variance. Therefore it provides a guideline to select TP as the most suitable statistic to perform this study. De Silva and Sooriyarachchi (2012) developed a R program to carry out this test. Missing Value Imputation in Multivariate Multilevel Framework The problem of having missing values is often arising in real world datasets. However it contains little or no information about the missing data mechanism (MDM). Therefore modeling incomplete data is a very difficult task and may provide bias results. Therefore this major problem address to a need of a proper mechanism to check the missingness. As a solution to that, Rubin (1976) presented three possible ways of arising misingness. These are classified as Missing At Random (MAR), Missing Completely At Random (MCAR) and Missing Not At Random (MNAR). According to the Sterne et. Al (2009), missing value imputation is necessary under the assumption of missing at random. However, it can also be done under the case missing complete at random. On nowadays most statistical packages have the capability of identifying the type of missingness. After identifying the type of missingness, the missing value imputation comes into the field and it requires a statistical package to perform this. Since the missing value imputation in a hierarchical nature is little bit more advanced and it cannot be done using usual statistical packages such as SPSS, SAS and R etc. Therefore Carpenter et. al (2009), developed the REALCOM software to perform this task. However latter version of REALCOM was not deal with multilevel data in a multivariate context. Therefore the macros related to perform this task was recently developed by the Bristol University team in order to facilitate under this case. Estimation Procedure The estimation procedures for multilevel modeling are starting late 1980’s. However For parameter estimation using Maximum Likelihood Method, an iterative procedure called EM algorithm was used by early statisticians (Raudenbush, Rowan and Kang, 1991). Later on the program HLM was developed to perform this algorithm. The most operational procedures for estimating multivariate multilevel models in the presence of Normal responses are Iterative Generalized Least Squares (IGLS), Reweighted IGLS (RIGLS) and Marginal Quasi Likelihood (MQL) while for discrete responses are MQL and Penalized Quasi Likelihood (PQL). According to Rasbash, Steele, Browne and Goldstein (2004) all of these methods are implemented in MLwiN along with including first order or second order Taylor Series expansions. However since these methods are likelihood based frequentist methods they tend to overestimate the precision. Therefore more recently the methods which are implemented in a Bayesian framework using Marcov Chain Monte Carlo methods (Brooks, 1998) also used for parameter estimation which allows capability to use informative prior distributions. These MCMC estimates executed in MLwiN provides consistent estimates though they require a large number of simulations to control of having highly correlated chains. Previous researches conducted using Univariate and Multivariate Multilevel Models Univariate multilevel logit models Before take a look at to the literature on multivariate multilevel analysis, the literature of univariate multilevel analysis is also be necessary to concerned since this thesis is based on some univariate multilevel models prior to fit multivariate multilevel models. In the past decades, many social Scientists used to apply multilevel models for binay data. Therefore it is very important to review how they have implemented their work with less technology. As a aim of that, Guo and Zhao (2000) was able to do a review of the methodologies, hypothesis testing and hierarchical nature of the data involve of past literature. Also they conducted two examples for justify their results. First of all they made a comparison between estimates obtained from MQL and PQL methods which was implemented by MLn and the GLIMMIX method implemented by SAS by using examples. They have shown that the differences in PQL 1 and PQL 2 are small when fitting binary logistic models. Furthermore, they have shown that PQL- 1 and PQL-2 and GLIMMIX are probable to be satisfactory for most of the past studies undertaken in social sciences. Noortgate, Boeck and Meulders (2003) uses multilevel binary logit models for the purpose of analyzing Item Response Theory (IRT) models. For that they carried out an assessment of the nine achievement targets for reading comprehension of students in primary schools in Belgium. They performed a multilevel analyses using the cross-classified logistic multilevel models and used the GLIMMIX macro from SAS, as well as the MLwiN software. However they found that there were some convergence problems arisen by using PQL methods in MLwiN. Therefore they used SAS to carryout analysis. Furthermore they have shown that the cross-classification multilevel logistic model is a very flexible to handle IRT data and the parameters can still be estimated even with the presence of unbalanced data. Multivariate Multilevel Models In the past two decades a very few of researches have sought to fit the multivariate multilevel models to the real world scenarios. Among those also all most all the researches trying to focus basically in educational sectors as well as socio economic sectors. None of them were able to focus these into the medical scenarios. However lack of multivariate multilevel analysis which presents in the field of health and medical sciences this chapter consists of the literatures of multivariate multilevel models in other fields. According to the previous studies of education, Xin Ma (2001) examined the association between the academic achievements and the background of students in Canada by considering three levels of interest. For that the three level Hierarchical Linear Model (HLM) was developed in order to achieve his goals. This work allows him to draw the conclusions that both students and schools were differentially successful in different subject areas and it was more obvious among students than among schools. However the success of this study is based on some strong assumptions about the priors of student’s cognitive skills. Exclusive of the field of education Raudenbush, Johnson and Sampson (2003) carried out a study in Chicago to determine the criminal behavior at person level as well as at neighborhood level with respect to some personal characteristics. For this purpose they use a Rasch model with random effects by assuming conditional independence along with the additives. Moreover, Yang, Goldstein, Browne and Woodhouse (2002) developed a multivariate multilevel analysis of analyzing examination results via a series of models of increasing complexity. They used examination results of two mathematics examinations in England in 1997 and analyzed them at individual and institutional level with respect to some students features. By starting from a simpler model of multivariate normality without considering the institutional random effects, they gradually increased the complexity of the model by adding institutional levels together with the multivariate responses. When closely looked at, there work shows that the choice of subject is strongly associated with the performance. Along with this growth of applications of multivariate multilevel models, researches may tend to apply those in to the other fields such as Forestry etc. Hall and Clutter (2004) presented a study regarding modeling the growth and yield in forestry based on the slash pine in U.S.A. In their work, they developed a methodology to fit nonlinear mixed effect model in a multivariate multilevel frame work in order to identify the effects of the several plot-level timber quantity characteristics for the yield of timber volume. In addition to that they also developed a methodology to produce predictions and prediction intervals from those models. Then by using their developments they have predicted timber growth and yield at the plot individual and population level. Grilli and Rampichini (2003) carried out a study to model ordinal response variables according to the students rating data which were obtained from a survey of course quality carried out by the University of Florence in 2000-2001 academic years. For that they developed an alternative specification to the multivariate multilevel probit ordinal response models by relying on the fact that responses may be viewed as an additional dummy bottom level variable. However they not yet assess the efficiency of that method since they were not implemented it using standard software. When considering the evidences of the recent applications of these models the literature shows that Goldstein and Kounali (2009) recently conducted a study on child hood growth with respect to the collection of growth measurements and adult characteristics. For that they extended the latent normal model for multilevel data with mixed response types to the ordinal categorical responses with having multiple categories for covariates. Since data consists of counts they gradually developed the model by starting a model with assuming a Poison distribution. However since the data are not follow exactly a Poisson distribution they treated the counts as an ordered categories to get rid of that problem. Frank, Cerda and Rendon (2007) did a study to identify whether the residential location have an impact to the health risk behaviors of Latino immigrants as they are increasing substantially in every year. For that they used a Multivariate Multilevel Rasch model for the data obtained by Los Angelis family and neighborhood survey based on two indices of health risk behaviors along with their use of drugs and participation for risk based activities. They starting this attempt by modeling the behavior of adolescents as a function of the characteristics related to both individual and neighborhood .According to the study they found that there is an association between increased health risk behaviors with the above country average levels of Latinos and poverty particularly for those who born in U.S.A. Another application of multivariate multilevel models was carried out Subramanian, Kim and Kawachi (2005) in U.S.A. Their main aim was to identify the individual and community level factors for the health and happiness of individuals. For that they performed a multivariate multilevel regression analysis on the data obtained by a survey which was held on 2000. Their findings reflect that those who have poor health and unhappiness have a high relationship with the individual level covariates By looking at the available literature, it can be seen that there are some amount of studies conducted on education and social sciences in other countries but none of the studies conducted regarding health and medical sciences. Therefore it is essential to perform a study by analyzing the mortality rates of some killing diseases which are spread in worldwide to understand risk factors and patterns associated with these diseases in order to provide better insights about the disease to the public as well as to the responsibly policy makers.